tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-23093592627223322682024-03-14T18:48:57.643+08:00這是什麼啊? 可以吃嗎?版主http://www.blogger.com/profile/11679992499358698322noreply@blogger.comBlogger68125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-85271511345441397742014-10-28T18:11:00.001+08:002015-08-24T23:48:29.016+08:00彩繪蝸牛殼可能會因為引起掠食者好奇心反幫倒忙<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">最近出現一個<a href="http://www.appledaily.com.tw/realtimenews/article/new/20141024/493534/">被狂轉的新聞</a>,大意是說有人為了避免蝸牛被路殺所以在其殼上彩繪,希望這樣就能讓人類注意到蝸牛的存在而不要把牠們踩死。</span>這聽起來好像立意不錯喔? 但就我們研究警戒與擬態的角度來說,我們認為這種作法天真且有些荒謬,為什麼呢?</span></div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">在偽裝(camouflage)與警戒(aposematism)形成的假說,以及許多實驗的結果,都告訴我們缺乏次級防禦(secondary defense)(例如化學防禦)的獵物多半具有隱匿色(cryptic coloration),因為這樣才能避免被天敵偵側,即使具有隱匿色不保證完全不會被攻擊;</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">警戒性形成的假說告訴我們,如果原本是隱匿的獵物出現了突變(例如白子),使之在環境背景中變得醒目(conspicuous),這時候就有可能吸引天敵的注意,而增高被攻擊的風險;</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">但在什麼樣的情況下這樣的攻擊會使天敵產生忌避(avoidance)而降低對獵物的攻擊頻度呢?也就是當獵物具有次級防禦,而且天敵的智力足以產生關聯性學習,把突變後的顏色(視覺訊息)與不好吃的肉(化學訊息)連結起來,這樣才能使得具有相同突變性狀的獵物得以生存,因為天敵已經學到教訓了。但是這個說明適用這個彩繪蝸牛的案例嗎?顯然不行。一般來說多數陸生蝸牛並不具備體內化學毒素,所以一旦把殼搞成這樣,只會使得蝸牛的視覺天敵(visual predator)更加注意到蝸牛,可能會因此增加蝸牛的被捕食機率;</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">警戒生成的假說認為視覺訊息要越穩定越能讓掠食者產生快速的學習效果。我們舉個例子好了,青椒原本是綠色的,後來改良的彩色青椒出現很多種顏色,每一種也都是可食的,這會讓你產生"什麼顏色才好吃或能吃"的聯想嗎?不能對不對?如果這些蝸牛被藝術家彩繪成這麼多不同的樣子,但牠們的身體對天敵來說都是能吃的,那麼不管你使用什麼顏色圖案來彩繪,牠們對天敵來說都是可口的,與顏色根本就沒有關係了;</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">在什麼情況下天敵會不吃彩繪蝸牛呢?也就是當天敵具"恐新"(neophobia)的時候(看到沒看過的就不碰),那這樣的顏色就可能讓天敵在第一時間不碰牠們。但一旦天敵看習慣了,最後又因為好奇而嘗試而吃蝸牛時,而且發現牠們其實可以吃,那就真的是災難。</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">好,重點是,多數蝸牛只有在高濕度與低光度的時候才會爬出來,也就是陰天、傍晚或夜間,那麼請問把蝸牛塗成這樣,是要給誰看?</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">總之,這個想法有點可愛,但是創作者缺乏生物學常識,只想到人與蝸牛的關係,而忘了蝸牛在整個環境中與其它諸多生物有許多交互作用,如果只是要提醒路殺問題,這樣的廣告效益其實不錯,但是也可能誤導不明究理的民眾。明明就是人類自己走路不長眼,為什麼要故意把蝸牛弄得醒目增加被其它動物捕食的風險呢?</span></div>
版主http://www.blogger.com/profile/11679992499358698322noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-49397185371608213212014-10-21T22:58:00.002+08:002014-10-21T22:58:29.544+08:00驅鳥用的鷹眼該怎麼設計才對?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">對許多農民來說,鳥害一直是心頭之痛。當然人類與野生動物爭地,又破壞牠們原來的棲地與天敵的關係後,這樣的情勢只會越來越糟糕。如果使用農藥來毒鳥是非常可怕的事,所以應該怎麼比較友善地驅趕鳥就是一個重要的議題,當然也因此衍生出許多的商品。<br /><br />就我們研究警戒性與擬態的立場來說,我們一直認為市面上驅鳥的用具有些古怪(<a href="http://www.birdcontrolpro.com/visual_scare_devices.htm">例如這些商品</a>),為什麼?市面上賣的驅鳥用品不外乎幾種類型:(1) 把整個天敵(或會兇的動物)的模型擺在田裏;(2) 假眼,以及其衍生的商品;(3) 其它理解不能的怪東西(例如鱷魚的頭)。然後設計風格也只有兩種,一種叫仿真,另一種叫卡通化。但是鳥可是聰明的動物啊,怎麼可能輕易地被這些玩意兒騙到?我們搜尋了一下文獻以後驚訝地發現,從以前到現在,軀鳥這事的設計與操作,從來沒有被警戒性(aposematism)的操作檢驗過。感覺就像是某些公司自己想像一下,以為鳥會被那樣的東西嚇到,就把產品生產出來了。我來說說為什麼諸多設計是有問題的:</span></span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u>眼斑的威嚇或警戒功能的理論背景並不明朗:</u>眼斑為什麼可以嚇人有幾個不同的假說:(A) 鳥看到眼紋會被嚇到乃是因為牠認為那是天敵的眼睛;<br />(B) 鳥看到眼紋會被嚇到是因為牠覺得那是頭,所以會偏離原本的攻擊;<br />如果是因為眼紋像天敵的眼睛,那麼鳥就必然要非常瞭解天敵的眼睛長什麼樣子,還有非常好的記憶力,那麼以天敵眼睛設計出來的貼紙就應該要有用。但是許多研究都指出"沒有用"。如果鳥會覺得那是頭就不攻擊,那與作物並無相關啊,那只是表示鳥不會去攻擊那個假眼貼紙或汽球,不表示牠不吃作物;</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u>眼斑產品的設計缺乏嚴謹的測試:</u>在警戒訊號(warning signal)的研究領域中,眼紋一直是重要的議題。一個眼紋能不能嚇到敵人與其尺吋、顏色組合、與環境背景間的對比、亮度、彩度、形狀、細節設計、排列、展示方式(例如大喇喇地展現,或原本隱藏後來忽然彈出),重點是,那些訊息會被鳥如何解讀?還有,鳥不是笨蛋,牠們擁有極佳的色覺、視覺解析度、記憶力、社群學習(也就是口耳相傳)與辨識力。太過陽春的設計可能根本不會嚇到牠們。</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u>究竟要設計得很像天敵或不需要像天敵?</u>我想這個問題得分幾方面來談:<br />(A) 首先我們應該先問是什麼樣的鳥在吃作物?鳩鴿、文鳥和椋鳥對天敵的反應一樣嗎?(假設我們接受"眼紋會嚇到鳥是因為牠們覺得那像天敵眼睛"這個假說) 如果不同鳥種對天敵的反應與認知完全不同,我們就不可以期待以一種產品就能嚇走所有的鳥。<br />(B) 如果要設計得很像才能嚇到鳥,那還要看究竟是要針對那一種天敵的眼睛來模擬,或是最好要把整隻天敵的全身影象都做出來印成貼紙或看板?<br />(C) 但如果把整隻天敵都印出來,那眼紋的功能還剩多少?這很妙吧?<br />(D) 大家有沒有發現國外賣的產品根本不像現實中會出現的任何動物的眼睛?為什麼?因為還有一個叫"恐新症(Neophobia)"假說。也就是說,鳥在看過沒看過的東西時就會被嚇到不碰。就好比你去7-ELEVEN看到新飲料會遲疑一下,不知道那是什麼鬼,所以就不買。但這個前提是"會吃作物的鳥是一種疑神疑鬼(suspicious)的動物"。</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u>靜態影像或物體可能沒有用:</u>前面說過了,鳥是一種聰明的動物,不會動的東西牠們就會知道那是紙老虎。所以如果擺個靜物在那邊,就算是隨風吹動,只要不像是活動物,牠們可能就會知道那是沒路用的咖小。</span></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">所以我的結論與建議是什麼?是這樣的:(1) 就算貼某種貼紙後,鳥擊玻璃或吃作物的頻度減少了,也不表示我們就馬上知道原因,因為沒有人針對有效的警戒元素進行測試;(2) 眼紋不是說一定沒有用,而是鳥太聰明,使用一成不變的設計與靜止設計不會嚇到牠們;(3) 就算短期有用,也不表示是"眼紋,或是畫一隻卡通鷹"的功勞,因為牠們可能認為那什麼都不是,不接近純粹是因為恐新,而不是被你認為的斑紋意涵嚇到;(4) 我認為防鳥擊玻璃與吃作物的設計應該運用完全不一樣的原理,一個是使鳥迴避飛向玻璃,另一個是讓鳥根本不要接進去吃作物,而不只是迴避驅鳥設施。</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">這邊有兩篇文章談到eyespot在軀鳥上失敗的案例與原因:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.meridianracingpigeons.com/raptorreport.pdf">回顧猛禽攻擊賽鴿的案例與防治方法</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=nwrcrepellants">驅鳥設施的設計與成本考量</a></span></div>
版主http://www.blogger.com/profile/11679992499358698322noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-24454508589569897222012-04-15T04:23:00.000+08:002012-07-13T15:40:15.624+08:00獵物群落結構影響捕食者對於穆氏擬態之選擇<br />
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<b>Ihalainen E, Rowland HM, Speed MP, Ruxton GD, Mappes J.</b> 2012 Prey community structure affects how predators select for Mullerian mimicry. Proc Biol Sci. DOI:10.1098/rspb.2011.2360 [<a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2012/01/11/rspb.2011.2360.full.pdf">Full</a>]<br /><br />
Keywords: aposematism; avoidance learning; Batesian mimicry; generalization
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複雜的獵物群落會增強擬態的選擇,反之較弱 (MacDougall, 1998)。複雜的獵物群落緩慢了掠食者對於警戒性物種的學習,掠食者犯下較多的辨識錯誤,增加了攻擊次數。簡單的獵物群落,獵物物種認識上較簡單,對於擬態的選擇較不容易發生。除了群落的複雜度對於擬態準確度影響以外,一個警戒訊號的相似性如何從原先的粗略象徵 (crude resemblance)調整成完美擬態還是個未知。</div>
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作者想探討:(1) 準確的穆氏擬態會否因較複雜的群落環境下演化。(2) 在信號歸納 ( generalization) ,群落結構會否影響掠食者對於信號準確性的選擇。使用大山雀 (<i>Parus major</i>)作爲掠食者及人造獵物進行實驗。作者設計了: perfect mimcry, simple edible/ simple aposematic, simple edible/ complex aposematic, complex edible/ simple aposematic 及 complex edible/ complex aposematic, 各5組。信號歸納測試, 作者則使用 model圖案,調整綫條厚度 (如上圖)。</div>
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掠食者在複雜環境中學習較慢,進行較多的錯誤攻擊 ,但並不表示對於擬態的個體有選擇。準確的擬態會發生在較簡單的群落環境中。在簡易群落環境中,掠食者擁有較少的選擇,對於獵物的訊號有較精確的辨識,淘汰不準確的擬態進而讓獵物演化出完美的擬態。就算在多樣的環境中,專一掠食者的食性能形成"簡易群落口袋" (pocket of simplicity) 讓完美擬態發生。</div>
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-22269634406365460662012-03-21T18:36:00.004+08:002012-03-21T18:44:08.758+08:00為什麼警戒性物種常會聚集過夜?<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdXCXwZuFvszLfFnq3GBsyMiMpi6_OCUtHij_owKuGWuwY0f9V5KfF6owTSGAo1QwMfecCT3bF-vmN6CQv1UpcW5FbpML8yz1A1oP23KKJl57YBLalu3zswakWFDw-yBdcSg4EJKXfUwnl/s1600/pipevineswallowtail-2a-web.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 266px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdXCXwZuFvszLfFnq3GBsyMiMpi6_OCUtHij_owKuGWuwY0f9V5KfF6owTSGAo1QwMfecCT3bF-vmN6CQv1UpcW5FbpML8yz1A1oP23KKJl57YBLalu3zswakWFDw-yBdcSg4EJKXfUwnl/s400/pipevineswallowtail-2a-web.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5722299305292795170" /></a><br /><br />[<a href="http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=zh-TW&client=firefox&hs=CDz&sa=X&rls=com.yahoo:zh-TW:official&tbs=isz:l&tbm=isch&tbnid=P6K-r6AwnK28kM:&imgrefurl=http://www.birderslounge.com/2008/07/fort-worth-nature-center-first/&docid=k9smnVR3X_e_xM&imgurl=http://www.birderslounge.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/07/pipevineswallowtail-2a-web.jpg&w=4288&h=2848&ei=1axpT6iaLuuKmQWklrSCCQ&zoom=1&biw=1366&bih=598">image</a>] <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Pegram KV, Han HA, Rutowski RL. 2012.</span> Overnight perching aggregations of the aposematic Pipevine Swallowtail (Battus philenor: Lepidoptera: Papilionidae): implications for predation risk and warning signal use. <span style="font-style:italic;">The Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera.</span> <span style="font-weight:bold;">45</span>: 9-16.[Online information has not been updated]<br /><br />警戒色除了能加速捕食者的迴避學習之外,也會提高自身被捕食者發現的機率,所以具警戒色的物種,演化出利用相互聚集的方式入夜,以分散捕食風險。在此Pegram等人則認為除了以個體數分散捕食風險之外,聚集可能也會改變翅紋訊號而影響捕食者行為,因此,以<span style="font-style:italic;">Pipevine Swallowtail</span>進行觀察,於野外及圈地內探討個體及群體入夜的棲息行為,記錄蟲體姓別、日出日落時間、環境狀況及日落前1.5小時至日落後半小時內蟲體的狀態及行為進行分析,發現雖然<span style="font-style:italic;">Pipevine Swallowtail</span>以聚集過夜為主,但仍有部份個體選擇獨處,並且 (a)在聚落中的性別比是沒差異的 (b)個體在環境中對於棲息位置是有所選擇的:選擇低光照條件或高處以勸阻捕食者攻擊行為 (c)聚集時可能因為相互擾亂降低警戒信號的強度 (d)停棲角度可能使影響警戒信號的呈現:增加警戒的面向、改變信號折射角度降低顯眼性 (e)停棲角度改變,於日出時可增加能量吸收的表面積 (f)日出後個體將離開過夜棲地,正好避開捕食者主要的活動時間,因此,可能基於這些理由,入夜後的群聚休息才被留存下來。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-25765142449202733392011-09-01T11:40:00.006+08:002011-09-01T11:59:22.308+08:00雄性擇偶的條件是如何判斷的?<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAtCtGH06u_TzChfCotl_6hA9H8bJwznwgImJCFlVtruCa6JkOlSmXDULAkPWpFUZR5LcujwvJrtuGqDZk835FMU-NW100Obg4bS6y4pfLL6kNGHrgH7NB1zfzqND9oxL7w0maDSv2CmYs/s1600/%25E6%259C%25AA%25E5%2591%25BD%25E5%2590%258D+-+3.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 300px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAtCtGH06u_TzChfCotl_6hA9H8bJwznwgImJCFlVtruCa6JkOlSmXDULAkPWpFUZR5LcujwvJrtuGqDZk835FMU-NW100Obg4bS6y4pfLL6kNGHrgH7NB1zfzqND9oxL7w0maDSv2CmYs/s400/%25E6%259C%25AA%25E5%2591%25BD%25E5%2590%258D+-+3.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5647232250494932434" /></a>
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<br />[<a href="http://www.biodiversity.ubc.ca/entomology_photos/Odonata/Coenagrionidae/">image</a>]
<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Iserbyt A, Gossum HV. 2011.</span> your true colour: cues for male mate preference in an intra-specific mimicry system. Ecological Entomology. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2311.2011.01300.x [<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2311.2011.01300.x/pdf">full text</a>]
<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Li CC, Hsiao WF. 2008.</span> The Reproductive Strategy of Ischmura senegalensis (Ramhttp://www.blogger.com/img/blank.gifbur) (Odonata: Coenagrionidae). Taiwan insect. <span style="font-weight:bold;">28</span>: 57-65. [<a href="http://www.airitilibrary.com/searchdetail.aspx?DocIDs=16807650-200803-28-1-57-65-a">Abstract</a>]
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<br />物種的多態型大多出現在雌性個體,並且為了增加交配機會而存在,但也易受捕食壓力而限制,而部份雌性的多態型是以擬態同種雄性表型的方式存在,有研究指出其用意為防止雄性的騷擾,例如<span style="font-style:italic;">Ischnura senegalensis</span>雌性除了正常之橘色型成蟲外,在性成熟前期具有綠色型之malemimic,但有研究顯示雌綠型仍具有最高的交配率,故其擬態用途仍有待後續研究討論(Li & Hsiao 2008)。在此,Iserbyt及Gossum也以<span style="font-style:italic;">Nehalennia Irene</span>於野外及實驗室內進行研究,將雄性的反應行為分成 (a)無反應 (b)飛離 (c)有接觸 (d)嘗試交配 四種,再經由人為控制色彩去比較雄性個體對於 (a) gynomorph (b) male (c) models的選擇偏好差異,結果發現:顏色改變並不影響雄性偏好(andromorph > male > gynomorph),因此雌蟲體色並非影響交配行為的主要原因。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-18078380727084200262011-08-26T15:29:00.004+08:002011-08-26T15:43:28.994+08:00為何車前燈蛾的翅紋多樣性可以長期存在?<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXWOgHW3ijm9N22LRxq8m1RUGhzMvicqSqvj22Uq1GpPPyEkktMSKdxTGlBdFQ7i56PvDjvBYPJD9s91I1uIlI_9DUXXLcLKkmeSHyd0eS7kxq_D7K5wEhZfkDzT3ipz_E_l7s66HMveLR/s1600/Nokelainen+O+et+al.+2011.+Trade-off+between+warning+signal+efficacy+and+mating+success+in+the+wood+tiger+moth.+Proc.+R.+Soc.+B..jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 383px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXWOgHW3ijm9N22LRxq8m1RUGhzMvicqSqvj22Uq1GpPPyEkktMSKdxTGlBdFQ7i56PvDjvBYPJD9s91I1uIlI_9DUXXLcLKkmeSHyd0eS7kxq_D7K5wEhZfkDzT3ipz_E_l7s66HMveLR/s400/Nokelainen+O+et+al.+2011.+Trade-off+between+warning+signal+efficacy+and+mating+success+in+the+wood+tiger+moth.+Proc.+R.+Soc.+B..jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5645067069736336962" /></a>
<br />[<a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/06/03/rspb.2011.0880.full.pdf+html">image</a>]
<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Nokelainen O, Hegna RH, Reudler JH, Lindstedt C, Mappes J. 2011.</span> Trade-off between warning signal efficacy and mating success in the wood tiger moth. Proc. R. Soc. B. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2011.0880 [<a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/06/03/rspb.2011.0880.full">full text</a>]
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<br />從演化的觀點來看,特徵選汰應傾向於對物種存活有利的方式,並且,後期這些基因特質應達到穩定且妨礙多態型的存在,但有許多警戒色的例子顯示多態型的物種是可以同時存在於相同族群中,其顯示不同型態之特徵可能具有不同優勢存在,或其可能具有相同功效。在此,作者以具有明顯翅紋變異的白色及黃色車前燈蛾(<span style="font-style:italic;">Parasemia plantaginis</span>)作為獵物,以藍山雀(<span style="font-style:italic;">Parus caeruleus</span>)作為捕食者測試翅紋警戒色在存活率和繁殖成功率之間的關係。結果顯示:(a)捕食者對於黃色翅紋有較長的攻擊延遲時間 (b)黃色翅紋的個體存活率比白色翅紋的個體好 (c)白色翅紋的個體繁殖成功率比黃色翅紋個體好,因此,作者認為此結果正好為車前燈蛾白色及黃色翅紋同時共存於自然界作一個很好的解釋。
<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-58211373744526850862011-08-18T11:19:00.003+08:002011-08-18T11:32:13.832+08:00毒蛺蝶的共域多態性擬態乃經由染色體重組維繫<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEic2FcbfKHuFp5lUldcH_gfFVRVp6EqconCgDynQa88PpnGYsQElnSayg1t1Gekl01VK5rH1RaClMtkMd-SF8XpJnuQQmIdiS459vYIuFiCw0_7Q68olP7O6oLjAY7MRFRRcnNVuzc80wGg/s1600/nature10341-f1.2.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 245px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEic2FcbfKHuFp5lUldcH_gfFVRVp6EqconCgDynQa88PpnGYsQElnSayg1t1Gekl01VK5rH1RaClMtkMd-SF8XpJnuQQmIdiS459vYIuFiCw0_7Q68olP7O6oLjAY7MRFRRcnNVuzc80wGg/s400/nature10341-f1.2.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5642030525854869010" border="0" /></a></span><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">文獻來源: Joron et al. (2011)</span> Chromosomal rearrangements maintain a polymorphic supergene controlling butterfly mimicry. <span style="font-style: italic;">Nature</span> <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10341.html?WT.ec_id=NATURE-20110818">doi:10.1038/nature10341 </a></span>
<br /><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;font-size:85%;" >
<br />Abstract</span>
<br /><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" >Supergenes are tight clusters of loci that facilitate the co-segregation of adaptive variation, providing integrated control of complex adaptive phenotypes. Polymorphic supergenes, in which specific combinations of traits are maintained within a single population, were first described for ‘pin’ and ‘thrum’ floral types in Primula and Fagopyrum, but classic examples are also found in insect mimicry and snail morphology. Understanding the evolutionary mechanisms that generate these co-adapted gene sets, as well as the mode of limiting the production of unfit recombinant forms, remains a substantial challenge. Here we show that individual wing-pattern morphs in the polymorphic mimetic butterfly Heliconius numata are associated with different genomic rearrangements at the supergene locus P. These rearrangements tighten the genetic linkage between at least two colour-pattern loci that are known to recombine in closely related species, with complete suppression of recombination being observed in experimental crosses across a 400-kilobase interval containing at least 18 genes. In natural populations, notable patterns of linkage disequilibrium (LD) are observed across the entire P region. The resulting divergent haplotype clades and inversion breakpoints are found in complete association with wing-pattern morphs. Our results indicate that allelic combinations at known wing-patterning loci have become locked together in a polymorphic rearrangement at the P locus, forming a supergene that acts as a simple switch between complex adaptive phenotypes found in sympatry. These findings highlight how genomic rearrangements can have a central role in the coexistence of adaptive phenotypes involving several genes acting in concert, by locally limiting recombination and gene flow.</span>
<br /></div>版主http://www.blogger.com/profile/11679992499358698322noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-84793758789857901412011-07-28T17:27:00.004+08:002011-07-28T17:33:40.201+08:00眼紋的禦敵功能到底是什麼?<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlFuBc6eIgqp_0uMBInEXesS7TqUThepD2L7nU7h4oqtKFqK1d5vcyIxq5OUsIAANUh2mN1JjSh4yttll6KCvNz3L0oiFwvVFKSYuLNvCiVwcfyCXMNJff6ynMHISPdkl3RidqZIlrpDkj/s1600/123.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 374px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlFuBc6eIgqp_0uMBInEXesS7TqUThepD2L7nU7h4oqtKFqK1d5vcyIxq5OUsIAANUh2mN1JjSh4yttll6KCvNz3L0oiFwvVFKSYuLNvCiVwcfyCXMNJff6ynMHISPdkl3RidqZIlrpDkj/s400/123.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5634332681836662978" /></a><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Vallin A, Dimitrova M, Kodandaramaiah U, Merilaita S.</span> (<span style="font-weight:bold;">2011</span>) Deflective effect and the effect of prey detectability on anti-predator function of eyespots. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. <span style="font-weight:bold;">65</span>:1629–1636. DOI 10.1007/s00265-011-1173-7[<a href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/j43k6502u937g261/">full text</a>]<br /><br />同心圓的眼紋一般被學者認為是具有禦敵的功能,並於早期實驗得知其具有威嚇天敵的作用,但近期研究發現,眼紋威嚇天敵的作用並非來自於形狀與眼睛相似,而是對比、顯眼性等因素,但眼紋於自然界中仍為十分常見的存在方式,因此作者試圖了解眼紋存在的理由。作者以藍山雀(<span style="font-style:italic;">Cyanistes caeruleus</span>)作為捕食者,以三角型的紙片製成人工獵物(b × h: 30×15 mm2),再控制獵物的眼紋的大小、數量(0、1、2)和背景差異(以27×21 cm紙板改變獵物背景色),總共分成兩個實驗,去看不同獵物對捕食者反應的影響。結果顯示:(a) 小眼紋比大眼紋易受到攻擊 (b)獵物和背景的突出程度會比眼紋大小更具影響力 (c) 捕食者的迴避行為在成對眼紋時會比無眼紋好 (d) 威嚇作用只出現在隱避性背景的部分 (e) 眼紋大小和單一大眼紋及無眼紋間無顯著差異。所以總結實驗結果,作者認為影響眼紋功能的主要因子是眼紋和背景的差異度,但天敵的攻擊行為會偏好小型眼紋,表示對天敵為小型的雀形目物種的獵物而言,天敵會攻擊眼紋而避免攻擊獵物本身的重要部位。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-10566374865736603872011-07-14T16:29:00.008+08:002011-07-28T17:34:18.961+08:00耗能低的偽裝也可以很有效嗎?<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3JE8EjdkmOhpaBRXp7WjAeroNtCI14oCTcZy9z0wrBgtQmB_6EYi1FuXkZOg48uGg9XQdOwWPFgl96YVnIKDWkZIdSenQa8tWeEshlM17KqXOYhVv34kfBcE_eFQcn7WXvlWHSxq_sCKZ/s1600/%25E6%259C%25AA%25E5%2591%25BD%25E5%2590%258D+-+1.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 209px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3JE8EjdkmOhpaBRXp7WjAeroNtCI14oCTcZy9z0wrBgtQmB_6EYi1FuXkZOg48uGg9XQdOwWPFgl96YVnIKDWkZIdSenQa8tWeEshlM17KqXOYhVv34kfBcE_eFQcn7WXvlWHSxq_sCKZ/s400/%25E6%259C%25AA%25E5%2591%25BD%25E5%2590%258D+-+1.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5629124685954732562" /></a><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Pekár S, Jarab M.</span> (<span style="font-weight:bold;">2011</span>) Assessment of color and behavioral resemblance to models by inaccurate myrmecomorphic spiders (Araneae). Invertebrate Biology <span style="font-weight:bold;">130</span>: 83-90. DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7410.2010.00217.x<br /><br />依擬態的相似程度,可以將擬態區分成完美擬態和不完美擬態,並且大多數學者認為演化會趨向於完美擬態,不完美擬態則為一個中間過程而已,但在自然界中,不完美擬態的物種數及個體數常遠超過完美擬態的數量,作者認為不完美擬態是針對特定捕食者而演化出的最佳方式,只要把握關鍵的辨識特徵即可,不用浪費多餘的能量去完全擬態,就能達到提高存活率的效果,而蜘蛛被認為具有擬蟻現象(myrmecomorphy),會擬態單一種或數種螞蟻的色彩,因此,作者以<em>Liophrurillus flavitarsis</em>、<em>Phrurolithus festivus</em>和<em>Micaria sociabilis</em>三種蜘蛛及它們的被擬態者(<em>Aphaenogaster senilis</em>、<em>Lasius platythorax</em>、<em>Liometopum microcephalum</em>)進行研究,探討不完美擬態於演化上存在的假說。作者發現:(a)三種model和各自的mimic間是有共域的 (b)mimic的數量遠低於model (c)擬態者會以擬態行為來加強外型擬態的精確性 (d)不完美擬態的關係會優於完美擬態。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-82529502084806220752011-06-29T10:40:00.003+08:002011-07-14T16:22:05.017+08:00偽裝有利於存活的先決條件是什麼?<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiic7Sa7b0bfFKf9j1xg2tCn5FjQcPzTtm8O4Enx-tT23FT4Fu2owq_MnRJaDW4_LnXCgwy0Lj7KMYS4MRh2KwE1sQGS7Tj005nPBIC1LHrPd-8WcVed8go_aU6-LqOpQ7xYrEWE3ZAv5XJ/s1600/123.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 257px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiic7Sa7b0bfFKf9j1xg2tCn5FjQcPzTtm8O4Enx-tT23FT4Fu2owq_MnRJaDW4_LnXCgwy0Lj7KMYS4MRh2KwE1sQGS7Tj005nPBIC1LHrPd-8WcVed8go_aU6-LqOpQ7xYrEWE3ZAv5XJ/s400/123.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5623468458765583874" /></a><br /><br />[image <em><a href="http://www.biolib.cz/en/taxonimage/id69976/?taxonid=51972">Selenia dentaria</a></em>][image <em><a href="http://www.montalegre-do-cercal.com/gallery/index.php/Pflanzen/Schlehdorn-Prunus-spinosa/Prunus-spinosa-Illustration">Prunus spinosa</a></em>]<br /><strong>Skelhorn J, Ruxton GD. (2011) </strong>Context-dependent misclassification of masquerading prey. Evol Ecol. 25:751–761. DOI 10.1007/s10682-010-9435-9<br /><br />部份的物種會以改變自己的外觀或行為等方式達到隱蔽的作用,而這些方式稱為偽裝,並且相較於正常獵物,無經驗的捕食者較不容易發現偽裝的獵物。在此,作者以小雞作為捕食者,以<em>Selenia dentaria</em>作為偽裝的獵物,其幼蟲被認為有偽裝寄主植物(<em>Prunus spinosa</em>)的能力,再 (1)改變樹枝背景使獵物顯眼性產生差異 (2)改變獵物和枝條的量,結果顯示,當獵物數較多且和背景相比較突出時,對有經驗的捕食者而言是最有利的;在與背景相比,顯眼性差的獵物其捕食者攻擊延遲的時間也比較久。因此,作者認為結果顯示偽裝可能要付出代價,且捕食者的決定可能是相當複雜而受多因子影響的。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-69574265181334989002011-06-24T11:56:00.003+08:002011-07-14T16:20:31.782+08:00掠食者的保守食性使得稀少且醒目的獵物得以生存<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJLJZoALujJKdP9ORleIkVEup93uW0AeE08U4zGUWUAS6aFmANGNR42ja28uu03w8fie7P6IzvqfbdBokWmxmtOsFScjlkIqSskeCvdZ9yvMQresxglbO1tlzm-X_E1aHn6LYChdX47rtZ/s1600/%25E6%259C%25AA%25E5%2591%25BD%25E5%2590%258D+-+2.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 291px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJLJZoALujJKdP9ORleIkVEup93uW0AeE08U4zGUWUAS6aFmANGNR42ja28uu03w8fie7P6IzvqfbdBokWmxmtOsFScjlkIqSskeCvdZ9yvMQresxglbO1tlzm-X_E1aHn6LYChdX47rtZ/s400/%25E6%259C%25AA%25E5%2591%25BD%25E5%2590%258D+-+2.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5621630516095803922" /></a><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Marples NM, Mappes J. (2011) </span>Can the dietary conservatism of predators compensate for positive frequency dependent selection against rare, conspicuous prey? Evol Ecol.<span style="font-weight:bold;"> 25</span>:737–749. DOI: 10.1007/s10682-010-9434-x<br /><br />簡介<br />由於顯眼性色彩容易吸引天敵的注意,警戒色在演化初期對獵物來說是不利且少見的,但若長期只供給相同獵物時,此獵物顯眼性表型中的anti-apostatic個體將被選汰出來。因此,作者以大山雀作為捕食者,杏仁作為人工獵物,測試於隱蔽獵物中19代顯眼性個體和捕食者的捕食行為之關係。結果發現,顯眼性獵物在初級的被攻擊率最高,使具警戒功能的顯眼性個體無法存活,但期捕食者有17隻(24%)會拒決捕食顯眼性獵物。因此,顯眼性獵物要在隱蔽族群中存活是困難的,但在捕食者的捕食行為篩選下,會促使警戒色在演化中被保存。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-77391083735502286612011-06-19T15:40:00.004+08:002011-07-14T16:17:51.034+08:00演化的軍備競賽─紅皇后與有性生殖<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3m3V5z6L_WQioMjxGhGoaQ9OXNBPEDlIGxGfO-CKu_2tmKFMB_TNWEYQjqKXlJcH1W5i1Rf_Og5t4QV1yVO7nSdtduNlG313qSKyW5uU3kFmyABan0DWH2OW_BohI3ir7xrcZm2wsGfsO/s1600/redqueen1-1024x654.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 255px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3m3V5z6L_WQioMjxGhGoaQ9OXNBPEDlIGxGfO-CKu_2tmKFMB_TNWEYQjqKXlJcH1W5i1Rf_Og5t4QV1yVO7nSdtduNlG313qSKyW5uU3kFmyABan0DWH2OW_BohI3ir7xrcZm2wsGfsO/s400/redqueen1-1024x654.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5619832689620043842" /></a><br /><br /><strong>程樹德(2010)</strong> 紅皇后與有性生殖。PanScience。http://pansci.tw/archives/3745<br /><br />作者於短短的一文中敘述了幾件事:<br />a. 范華倫(Leigh van Valen)於化石堆中悟出”紅皇后假設”:「表示物種必須不斷演化,才能在競爭中保持現有地位,不致於被競爭者淘汰」<br />b. 有性生殖的優勢在於造成個體基因的重新排列組合,使族群位於不斷變動的環境中有存活下來的機會,或者也能藉此刪除因突變而產生的壞基因;反之,無性生殖無法去除壞基因,甚至可能將其累積,而此稱為穆勒撐高機(Muller’s ratchet)理論。<br />c. 彩票理論(lottery principle):無性生殖如同購買大量同號碼的彩票,而有性生殖如同買少量但號碼均不同的彩票,兩者相比時,前者中獎的獲益較高,但是後者中獎的機率則比前者高。<br />d. 一個共同研究,以病毒與細菌的共同演化實驗表明:兩物種在共演化下,其演化速率會比單獨演化要來得快,此結果則支持范華倫的軍備競賽假說。<br /><br />總結:自然界的物種多以共演化的方式進行軍備競賽,而有性生殖則為其中一種使族群於競賽中增加存活機會的方式。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-52762816044151043792011-06-19T14:35:00.006+08:002011-06-24T10:44:20.202+08:00環境背景和掠食者的覓食行為有什麼關係?<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT4BBHUeU1J6mkofUVkWOuBYgodwThK_xbJTnYuf4YoUnfaa2-6ARM-qIoUS-_u9TsFodaL4Py72D2Q1qSrVY9zuKFr1Yg3-LH0dCIffVlnPXscFZRs-KasOmk4N20oDn_FMYqJtN8Hj1e/s1600/Rhinella+marina.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 243px; height: 208px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT4BBHUeU1J6mkofUVkWOuBYgodwThK_xbJTnYuf4YoUnfaa2-6ARM-qIoUS-_u9TsFodaL4Py72D2Q1qSrVY9zuKFr1Yg3-LH0dCIffVlnPXscFZRs-KasOmk4N20oDn_FMYqJtN8Hj1e/s400/Rhinella+marina.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5619816495877217458" /></a><br />[圖片來源: http://online-field-guide.com/Chaunusmarinus.htm]<br /><br /><strong>González-Bernal E, Brown GP, Cabrera-Guzmán E & Shine R. (2011)</strong> Foraging tactics of an ambush predator: the effects of substrate attributes on prey availability and predator feeding success. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. <strong>65</strong>: 1367-1375. DOI: 10.1007/s00265-011-1147-9<br /><br />掠食者在覓食時會挑選適合埋伏的地點,例如甘蔗蟾蜍(<em>Rhinella marina</em>)會選擇在有人工光源的開擴地覓食。作者將實驗分成兩部份:首先,野外實驗將橡膠墊(1.5×1.5 m)置於野外光源下的地面進行實驗,看在不改變墊子數量、大小及獵物種類之下,不同色彩(黑色和白色)及紋路(光滑和粗糙)之間對捕食行為的影響,結果發現蟾蜍偏好白色粗糙的墊子;另外,作者也進行室內實驗去控制獵物的色彩,發現 (1)白色背景下,捕食者便於搜尋深色獵物 (2)粗糙背景時,獵物的移動速度也會降低。因此,動物的覓食行為,不單只受獵物密度影響,也會受覓食環境的影響。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-49262433016049983872011-04-14T15:29:00.007+08:002011-04-15T18:36:12.890+08:00捕食者對車前燈蛾(Parasemia plantaginis)翅紋警戒色之方向性選擇及強度<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIQiCv63UUljsKb-66og11gL3a4okKfFoj7nRuKjsul8Pr8_0JV671fUh7nR2Pyyl-YFfMrXXcFIMDOtZZz1d9ulr1Tdnojl5i5OYuV4TgtG2ueBA3rYZXpm8PoCzm8WuEAZXGDhzAvn8T/s1600/fig.1.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 126px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIQiCv63UUljsKb-66og11gL3a4okKfFoj7nRuKjsul8Pr8_0JV671fUh7nR2Pyyl-YFfMrXXcFIMDOtZZz1d9ulr1Tdnojl5i5OYuV4TgtG2ueBA3rYZXpm8PoCzm8WuEAZXGDhzAvn8T/s400/fig.1.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5595338763903751362" /></a><br /><strong>Lindstedt C, Eager H, Ihalainen E, Kahilainen A, Stevens M, Mappesa J. (2011)</strong> Direction and strength of selection by predators for the color of the aposematic wood tiger moth. Behav. Ecol. doi:10.1093/beheco/arr017[<a href="http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/03/21/beheco.arr017.full.pdf">full text</a>]<br /><br />簡介<br />在本篇研究中,作者以<em>Parasemia plantaginis</em>的雌性作為顯眼性獵物,該物種具有雌性多態型(紅/橘/黃三種翅紋色彩),以<em>Galleria</em> sp.作為隱蔽性獵物,並以pied flycatchers及Great tits作為捕食者進行了四個實驗:<br />(a) 同時提供顯眼性與隱蔽性獵物,去看在不同獵物下,捕食者的攻擊行為是否有差異;<br />(b)針對<em>Para. plantaginis</em>翅紋的差異及實驗背景,去進行色彩及亮度的標定,再去比較捕食者視神經的接收比率、製成模型比較;<br />(c)以兩種不同翅紋的<em>Para. plantaginis</em>去探討捕食者迴避學習的程度差異;<br />(d)於野外實驗探討捕食者對顯眼性獵物和隱蔽性獵物存活率的影響,以及紅色及橘色顯眼性獵物存活率上的差異。<br />結果發現:具警戒的顯眼性獵物較具有存活優勢,並且高度的對比色可以加快捕食者的迴避學習,但由於<em>Para. plantaginis</em>本身的化學防禦性物質的影響,使<em>Para. plantaginis</em>的雌性多態型於演化中得以保存,但本研究中所有數據於統計上均無顯著差異存在。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-26381024637431255142011-03-08T15:32:00.004+08:002011-03-08T16:26:19.543+08:00擬態的多種模式:偽裝的多態型會為隱避種帶來更多優勢<span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDnQ-1Ka1xlHWMjswgDFOCF_lHbMseuildT_HyXyJ8Cpm2LvF-qlT5KJpoQtG8y62b_Rr5yqyb7gd-0KDpN32RQvHScHYNqlIJgU3aUnVzOjEhdrwPieiX8oSma3e8JJZd5rLvpfmcdmnn/s1600/Biston_betularia.png"><img style="display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px; height: 300px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDnQ-1Ka1xlHWMjswgDFOCF_lHbMseuildT_HyXyJ8Cpm2LvF-qlT5KJpoQtG8y62b_Rr5yqyb7gd-0KDpN32RQvHScHYNqlIJgU3aUnVzOjEhdrwPieiX8oSma3e8JJZd5rLvpfmcdmnn/s400/Biston_betularia.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5581610839701861842" border="0" /></a></span><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" >[</span><span style="font-family: arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><a href="http://www.google.com.tw/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Biston_betularia.png&imgrefurl=http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/File:Biston_betularia.png&usg=__cGI6WVNCbC4tK5Wf76K8gbMxGM0=&h=1093&w=1458&sz=3512&hl=zh-TW&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=6NvqaRwpzmTR_M:&tbnh=125&tbnw=175&ei=-Np1TfWtL4-wuAPitcnbBQ&prev=/images%3Fq%3DBiston%2Bbetularia%2Bcognataria%26hl%3Dzh-TW%26sa%3DG%26biw%3D1362%26bih%3D556%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=601&vpy=238&dur=62&hovh=194&hovw=259&tx=108&ty=138&oei=-Np1TfWtL4-wuAPitcnbBQ&page=1&ndsp=21&ved=1t:429,r:10,s:0">圖片來源</a>]<br /><br /><strong>Skelhorn J & Ruxton GD. (2010)</strong> Mimicking multiple models: polyphenetic masqueraders gain additional benefits from crypsis. Behav. Ecol. <strong>22</strong>: 60–65. doi:10.1093/beheco/arq166 [<a href="http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2010/10/18/beheco.arq166.full.pdf+html">full text</a>]<br /><br /></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" >許多生物會藉由擬態無生命的物體來躲避天敵的攻擊,這個現象稱為偽裝(masquerade)。但偽裝的優勢會依被模仿者的數量和偽裝者的比例不同而不同,因此,當物種同時具有不同的多態型時可能是最有利的存在方式,例如:美國胡椒蛾(Biston betularia cognataria)幼蟲就是具有多態型的物種,其幼蟲取食樺木(birch trees)的會像樺木枝條,取食柳樹(willow trees)的就會長得像柳樹枝條。在此作者認為此幼蟲於不同寄主上所呈現的多態型是一種擬態行為,因此,作者以100隻小雞(Gallus gallus domesticus)作為捕食者,以120 *50*50 cm的籠子飼養,控制日照長度及溫度,並以黃粉蟲(Tenebrio molitor) 每天餵養兩次,以四齡的胡椒蛾幼蟲作為獵物,以樺木及柳葉飼養使幼蟲形成棕褐色及綠色兩種不同型式的幼蟲再進行實驗,實驗結果表明:捕食者會將幼蟲誤判為寄主枝條進而產生不捕食行為,但鳥類的行為可能是幼蟲本身的隱避色而非擬態,因此作者又測試了幼蟲的擬態是否成立,發現當幼蟲位於與自己相似的寄主上時,擬態效果是較為顯著的。同時,作者認為此研究也是首次說明物種的多態型對偽裝來說是有利的,並且有利於物種的隱避行為。</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-2479490365789754132011-01-20T14:54:00.006+08:002011-01-20T15:11:58.294+08:00當不可食的獵物越多時,是否會分散捕食風險?<a href="http://m.animalpicturesarchive.com/m.view.php?q=domestic+chicken&p=5&lang=kr"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxXFTXHIWVSMYzM91fPGv-o_owSxjZQ75HDOodmy_4B_jBmEC_sASxtANSAiW4zYmFn-JIjcRYoh5K2xMe_7YxcF6jNBpTAAOIv4Fd12DdRmxo-c1tHHVfLQjQ4p16nbLojiSSY7f0Muhj/s1600/1096794011.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 350px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxXFTXHIWVSMYzM91fPGv-o_owSxjZQ75HDOodmy_4B_jBmEC_sASxtANSAiW4zYmFn-JIjcRYoh5K2xMe_7YxcF6jNBpTAAOIv4Fd12DdRmxo-c1tHHVfLQjQ4p16nbLojiSSY7f0Muhj/s400/1096794011.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5564161075194019842" /></a></a><br />[<a href="http://m.animalpicturesarchive.com/m.view.php?q=domestic+chicken&p=5&lang=kr">圖片來源</a>]<br /><br /><strong>Rowland HM, Wiley E, Ruxton GD, Mappes J & Speed MP. (2010)</strong> When more is less: the fitness consequences of predators attacking more unpalatable prey when more are presented. <em>Biol. Lett.</em> <strong>6</strong>: 732-735. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2010.0207 [<a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/6/6/732.full.pdf+html">Full text</a>]<br /><br />1879年,Fritz Müller提出:在擬態行為中,當具警戒信號的獵物比例增加時,獵物的被捕食風險將會降低,因此作者以110隻雄性小雞(<em>Gallus gallus domesticus</em>)作為捕食者,以麵包屑加水作為人工獵物,以chloroquine phosphate作為苦味劑,並且將人工獵物進行染色,可食的(edible)為綠色,不可食的(unpalatable)為紅色,再改變不可食人工獵物的數量,檢示當不可食獵物增加時是否改變捕食風險。結果發現,當不可食獵物數量增加時(總獵物量增加),捕食者攻擊不可食獵物的次數也增加,因此不可食獵物的數量會下降,但捕食量並未改變,所以捕食風險的降低是由於獵物量增加所造成,但不可食獵物的死亡率會隨攻擊次數而逐漸降低(代表捕食者具有將色彩及味道進行關聯的學習能力),因此作者認為在自然界中當不可食獵物增加時,並不會分散捕食風險,而是因為總族群量增加使個體被捕食風險降低。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-22591382915122470352010-12-09T14:47:00.008+08:002010-12-09T15:08:22.234+08:00眼紋真的可以嚇到天敵嗎?<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhm31rO_Nd3efnBolfHWy5-v0xuBySBQ5G9BLC4iX1BMc0Z1vcfFcaCEqjTw36wj_brs2KTFy17UMAeRgU1_HfBS-rn8lzBX-IXVKzRnr52IGqWjhMf4A74T9ufqJMMEhyM7xmBAxrGkxdV/s1600/Saturnia+pavonia.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 254px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhm31rO_Nd3efnBolfHWy5-v0xuBySBQ5G9BLC4iX1BMc0Z1vcfFcaCEqjTw36wj_brs2KTFy17UMAeRgU1_HfBS-rn8lzBX-IXVKzRnr52IGqWjhMf4A74T9ufqJMMEhyM7xmBAxrGkxdV/s400/Saturnia+pavonia.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5548573053119491570" /></a><br /><br /><strong>Vallin A, Jakobsson S & Wiklund C.(2010)</strong> Constant eyespot display as a primary defense - survival of male and female emperor moths when attacked by blue tits.<strong> 43</strong>:9-17.<br /><br />蝴蝶和蛾類在翅膀上常有大型且突出的眼紋(eyespots),可以用來防止捕食者的攻擊,早期的研究主要著重在鱗翅目眼紋的突然暴露如何干擾捕食者的議題,在此則以探討鱗翅目眼紋長期暴露的潛在效益。作者以兩種本身有共域狀態的物種:天蠶蛾(<em>Saturnia pavonia</em>)作為獵物,藍山雀(<em>Cyanistes caeruleus</em>)作為捕食者於Tovetorp Zoological Research Station進行實驗,並計錄放置獵物後30分鐘內捕食者的行為,發現為有眼紋的蛾類比無眼紋者容易受到攻擊,而認為鳥並未受到眼紋的驚嚇,但也發現體型較大的雌性蛾類個體和體型較小的雌性個體相比是不容易受到攻擊的,所以獵物可能是以體型大小來驚嚇捕食者,因此作者認為天蠶蛾長時間暴露眼紋的行為會對捕食者造成吸引而非驚嚇。Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-4636440945906277872010-08-23T10:55:00.005+08:002010-08-30T10:19:45.994+08:00無翅紅蝽警戒色對捕食者的影響<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBtCzmlMhyr4Y4QCr-TwVX_BPVaT4oNrf3XL7YgDAv0vU0OHCIVkjIQQUdHMog7QHzR9l6dJEiiFDUgYV2kterkN8BVjDBS2DHTfMPpKYNtdEyW5aXNIYSamGbKqN3iUryE0krOS9VH9Yp/s1600/BIJ_1463_f1.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px; height: 214px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBtCzmlMhyr4Y4QCr-TwVX_BPVaT4oNrf3XL7YgDAv0vU0OHCIVkjIQQUdHMog7QHzR9l6dJEiiFDUgYV2kterkN8BVjDBS2DHTfMPpKYNtdEyW5aXNIYSamGbKqN3iUryE0krOS9VH9Yp/s400/BIJ_1463_f1.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5509181247103944386" border="0" /></a>文獻出處: </span><br /><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><strong>Exnerová, A., Svádová, K., Štys, P., Barcalová, S., Landová, E., Prokopová, M., Fuchs, R. & Socha, R.</strong> (2006) Importance of colour in the reaction of passerine predators to aposematic prey: experiments with mutants of Pyrrhocoris apterus (Heteroptera). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society <strong>88</strong>: 143-153. [<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00611.x/pdf">Full text</a>] </span><br /><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><strong>Prokopová, M., Veselý, P., Fuchs, R. & Zrzavý, J.</strong> (2010) The role of size and colour pattern in protection of developmental stages of the red firebug (Pyrrhocoris apterus) against avian predators. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society <strong>100</strong>(4): 890–898. [<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01463.x/abstract">Abstract</a>] </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" >無翅紅蝽(<em>Pyrrhocoris apterus</em>)是半翅目(Hemiptera)昆蟲綱(Insecta)的物種,成蟲體長9-13 mm,發育過程中有五次蛻皮,可以借由蛻皮改變身上的斑紋,體色也可能隨著溫度變化而有些許改變。Alice Exnerová et al. (2006)於1999年至2002年間進行測試,探討無翅紅蝽警戒色的持久性問題、體色和背景色效應的關係,以及體色多態型的起源和警戒色的維持,他以大山雀(<em>Parus major</em>), 藍山雀(<em>Cyanistes caeruleus</em>), 歐亞鴝(<em>Erithacus rubecula</em>)和黑冠鶯(<em>Sylvia atricapilla</em>)作為捕食者,並且實驗過程中所使用的所有物種均於實驗前(一年內)捕獲,再經人工飼養而來。其結果得知,顏色的多態性可以說明:物種的演化是經由隱性突變所造成。 </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" >另外,無翅紅蝽成蟲和幼蟲雖然都具有紅色及黑色的體色,但體形大小、色彩和紋路相異,被捕食的頻率則有所差異。Milena Prokopová et al. (2010)假設體型大小會影響捕食者光化學信號的傳遞,而以大山雀(<em>Parus major</em>)和藍山雀(<em>Cyanistes caeruleus</em>)這兩種生態性相似的物種做為捕食者,來探討體型大小不同的鳥類,對無翅紅蝽的體型比例、顏色模式和捕食訊號之間關係的影響。結果顯示捕食者第一次遇到紅蝽時,體型不影響攻擊;但多次後,體型小的獵物較容易被攻擊、取食,並且獵物對兩種捕食者的保護信號有所不同(化學及光學信號),就連色彩模式也影響捕食者的意願,所以雖然幼蟲和成蟲同時具有紅色和黑色外表,但幼蟲的色彩並沒有提供良好的保護作用。</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-52089295353308717402010-02-17T12:31:00.001+08:002010-02-18T00:49:40.333+08:00鳥類能夠學習用不適口度做為獵物有毒程度的訊號<div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: arial; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidGvT3iEQC44LoshhxgHmBK9QdA0GTl-SZbULy1Nkt6HUkZ6pPJ7E-MoEHLnQkHc2WR-v41BFBkWoSw3YDJxv4T12E5FDqjROBymL9JZHAtcI6thHW_OLvycpaYNdi1xSUlBhwSVSO_TaW/s1600-h/European+Starling+5903.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidGvT3iEQC44LoshhxgHmBK9QdA0GTl-SZbULy1Nkt6HUkZ6pPJ7E-MoEHLnQkHc2WR-v41BFBkWoSw3YDJxv4T12E5FDqjROBymL9JZHAtcI6thHW_OLvycpaYNdi1xSUlBhwSVSO_TaW/s320/European+Starling+5903.jpg" border="0" /></span></a></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: arial; text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:85%;"><span class="Apple-style-span">photo from </span></span><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="http://www.tamstuart.com/"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span">http://www.tamstuart.com/</span></span></a></span></div><div style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;font-family:Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:85%;" class="Apple-style-span" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />Source: Skelhorn J. & Rowe C. (2010)</span> Birds learn to use distastefulness as a signal of toxicity. <i>Proc. R. Soc. B</i>. (in press) <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/01/28/rspb.2009.2092.abstract">[abstract]</a></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:85%;"><br /><br />具有警戒色的獵物展示顯眼的體色用以警告它們的捕食者其不適口度,並且讓捕食者迅速的學習避免再度攻擊同類的獵物。雖然這樣的機制能夠有效的讓捕食者學習避免捕食,但卻沒有讓捕食者知道到底獵物有多不好吃,而這牽扯到如何能將不適口度較低的獵物包含在捕食者的飲食內,並在這樣的獵物中取得最大能量與生理上抵抗其毒性間取得平衡。因此,捕食者應該要能夠判斷這些受保護的獵物中的毒性高低。在本篇文章的實驗中,作者使用歐洲<span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;"><span class="Apple-style-span">椋</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: normal;">鳥(European starling)做為捕食者,並且測得其能夠利用苦味的程度預測該個體體內含毒的程度,並且使用這樣的資訊進一步選擇毒性較低的獵物,以增加自身取得能量的最大值。本篇的結果支持苦味是一種能夠反應毒性的訊號,並且能夠解釋為何大多數的毒物皆具有苦味。而這個結果也提供了未來若要使用函數模擬獵物的防禦的演化時,應考慮捕食者根據毒性與取得的營養間的平衡所做的決定。</span></span></span></div>Chia-Hsuan Weihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05264223055637416856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-41178387053904545312010-02-14T22:32:00.000+08:002010-02-14T23:08:33.508+08:00棲地分割是否導致擬態的毒斑蝶亞科種類的分化?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbpEOfTNpcKA2G1ehOjG3Lb_OqEeh9mmU8rER-kt0UKWAxH7oT_GRapuZrUVcox3tGw_QC9gKaaviDPe4Ht0tAGQ9Wf11KWMVqtuvWpUZlpkRnf598olsRIYyrho5JCUftOdA1xCUwweDx/s1600-h/mothone.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbpEOfTNpcKA2G1ehOjG3Lb_OqEeh9mmU8rER-kt0UKWAxH7oT_GRapuZrUVcox3tGw_QC9gKaaviDPe4Ht0tAGQ9Wf11KWMVqtuvWpUZlpkRnf598olsRIYyrho5JCUftOdA1xCUwweDx/s320/mothone.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: arial; text-align: center; color: rgb(102, 102, 102);"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:85%;">photo from <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/taxome/jim/Mim/moth.html">http://www.ucl.ac.uk/taxome/jim/Mim/moth.html</a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">source:</span> Hill RI. (2010) Habitat segregation among mimetic ithomiine butterflies (Nymphalidae). Evol. Ecol. 24: 273-285. <a href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/61u3t1070535p354/">[abstract]</a></span><br /></div><br /><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">簡介</span><br />擬態生物學家對於共棲並擬態蝴蝶的翅紋多樣性,抱持著讚嘆卻無法有合理的解釋,因為在天擇的作用下,捕食者對於擬態的斑紋的選汰,應該會迫使捕食者採用同樣的斑紋以加強擬態的效應。擬態群間的棲地分割是一個已經用來測試的假說,且可能可以用來解釋擬態群的高多樣性,但截至目前為止,以這個假說來討論擬態群的分化的研究仍然很少。本篇基於這個假說,測試不同的擬態群是否限定在特定的棲地中。作者取樣分布自厄瓜多的毒斑蝶亞科中9個不連續的擬態群且分屬於4種不同的棲地。毒斑蝶亞科的種類與數量在開放式棲地都是最少的,棲地的偏好性也在大多數的種類被觀察到。不同的擬態群間的棲地有顯著的不同,顯示不同的棲地是維持擬態群多樣性的重要因素。然而,仍然觀察到擬態群的分佈有重疊的情況,特別是在2個數量最多的擬態群中。這樣的分佈格局是被較為普遍的種類所驅動,而稀有種類與數量較多種類的分布僅有較薄弱的證據顯示其符合。因此,棲地分割在擬態的多樣性的演化中,僅對於數量較多的model有其貢獻,但這個因子對於整體演化的影響度可能比起其他的因子薄弱。</span></div>Chia-Hsuan Weihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05264223055637416856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-31941529784270490552010-02-14T12:58:00.000+08:002010-02-14T17:54:36.311+08:00條紋紅椿(Striated shield bug)在不同時期改變自身保護色以躲避天敵<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnRsHqLSniQTafr3CBty-7PMOTX2VKUGeHO-5PAcKL5F7mTECMd6NkNa9oLmfARwt8WC3lEet5zt2RAya_u_5-LjK-je0EBZ59qA8cf6uqsliUtOZ9YV7hp7f2qyClN_FrStSLNn4StAyb/s1600-h/Graphosoma_lineatum.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnRsHqLSniQTafr3CBty-7PMOTX2VKUGeHO-5PAcKL5F7mTECMd6NkNa9oLmfARwt8WC3lEet5zt2RAya_u_5-LjK-je0EBZ59qA8cf6uqsliUtOZ9YV7hp7f2qyClN_FrStSLNn4StAyb/s320/Graphosoma_lineatum.jpg" border="0" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;">Gamberle-Stille G, Johansen AI, Tullberg BS. (2010) Change in protective coloration in the striated shieldbug Graphosoma lineatum (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae): predator avoidance and genealization among different life stages. Evol. Ecol. 24: 423-432. <a href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/g327j4465600835k/">[abstract]</a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;">簡介</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;">動物用以保護自身的顏色主要有兩種形式:隱蔽與警戒,而有些物種在不同的成長時期採取改變體色的策略用以躲避天敵。本篇以Striated shieldbug為例,在夏天晚期時該椿象的體色為較隱蔽的灰白褐色,而到了隔天春天早期時,該椿象的體色變為紅與黑的條紋。本篇主要測試這種椿象在比較其在不同的發育時期,其隱蔽的體色是否會影響警戒色的效用。在測試中隱蔽型與警戒型的椿象展示給無經驗的家雞,以測試其經驗初期對於不同體色的忌避反應、學習與普遍化反應。測試使用三種形式的椿象:幼期體色、成蟲期的隱蔽體色與警戒體色。其結果顯示家雞最快發現警戒體色的不適口,其次依序為隱蔽體色與幼期體色。家雞在測試中並為學得避免取食幼期體色的個體,但成蟲期的兩種體色皆被學習並且避免捕食。此結果顯示隱蔽型的體色可能也代表較為減弱的警戒色,並且可避免被沒經驗的鳥類捕食。</div>Chia-Hsuan Weihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05264223055637416856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-47848206205764952782010-01-29T17:43:00.000+08:002010-01-30T10:34:12.761+08:00失去螯肢的雄性招潮蟹如何躲避其他個體的侵略?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGnXEL981l2LcjaUMH86qWaRhb7X9AxHuQLe2NSgh4ZSKxsD83AvT3ySR7jk4v5bC7ArduwsgKspXy9_GlD-G9oLvQfc25qfYH8GNXdPGAoFGu7G1CA3JW29EJoVfpPyZ_Q94JCMVtKxm-/s1600-h/427821933_9c5426d197.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGnXEL981l2LcjaUMH86qWaRhb7X9AxHuQLe2NSgh4ZSKxsD83AvT3ySR7jk4v5bC7ArduwsgKspXy9_GlD-G9oLvQfc25qfYH8GNXdPGAoFGu7G1CA3JW29EJoVfpPyZ_Q94JCMVtKxm-/s320/427821933_9c5426d197.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">photo from <a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/wildsingapore/427821933/">http://www.flickr.com/photos/wildsingapore/427821933/</a></span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-size: small;">source: Booksmythe I, Milner RNC, Jennions MD & Backwell PRY. (2010) How do weaponless male fiddler crabs acoid aggression? Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 64(3): 485-491. <a href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/f3251l01062048tt/">[abstract]</a> </span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </span></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;">許多物種為了避免雄性間的競爭,會藉由擬態雌性的特徵來避免自身受到傷害。在招潮蟹中,雄性特化的大螯通常是用以競爭及防禦領域,但某些個體會因為打鬥時受傷以致失去了大螯,而這是否會影響其生存與防禦其他個體侵略的能力?本篇作者根據這個想法,測試了三個假設:(1)雄性招潮蟹是否將失去大螯招潮蟹誤認為雌性個體?(2)失去大螯的招潮蟹在取得、防禦與維持領域上是否較弱?(3)失去大螯的招潮蟹是否比其他健全的雄性個體更謹慎?其結果顯示雖然失去大螯的雄蟹與健全的雄蟹取得領域的方式不同,但其成功率並無顯著差異;雖然健全的雄蟹會將失去大螯的雄蟹當成雌蟹,但並沒有證據顯示失去大螯的雄蟹是有目的的擬態雌蟹。失去大螯的雄蟹也顯出其為了避免衝突,而有不同保衛領域的策略。</div>Chia-Hsuan Weihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05264223055637416856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-52948445669869821952010-01-27T13:45:00.000+08:002010-01-27T13:45:00.342+08:00[Book] Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzcJaXt3l13Wyg9AH47kgvvk8l-wZhLcVnJ74DLcs9wPJ7MRvuTvwJsPY-vo-qbYAK5sX4tlPJqb3Tfe2y2mbIvaMqk42QB-QHyPoyGthY7rExyyXa2rfedBRh6hYnvlYV-ErxN43XMMBP/s1600-h/42525193.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzcJaXt3l13Wyg9AH47kgvvk8l-wZhLcVnJ74DLcs9wPJ7MRvuTvwJsPY-vo-qbYAK5sX4tlPJqb3Tfe2y2mbIvaMqk42QB-QHyPoyGthY7rExyyXa2rfedBRh6hYnvlYV-ErxN43XMMBP/s320/42525193.JPG" /></a><br />
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</div><div style="text-align: justify;">本書中介紹動物用於保護的顏色,諸如隱蔽色、警戒色與擬態等,並且連結其自然現象與演化機制,從基因層次至天擇都在本書的討論範圍中;除此之外,作者也實地訪談實際研究動物體色演化的科學家,記錄實際的經驗與難題,補足自達爾文以來,關於動物體色演化觀念的變化與挑戰。作者也進一步的討論動物的保護體色應用於人類世界的實例,如陸戰隊的野戰服裝的顏色如何與背景達成一致,以達成隱蔽的效果,都是參考自然界的應用實例。<br />
[相關書介]<br />
<a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v463/n7278/full/463161a.html">Nature</a><br />
<a href="http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Dazzled-and-Deceived/Peter-Forbes/e/9780300125399/?itm=1">Barnes & Noble</a><br />
<a href="http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/bookshelf/261837/dazzled-and-deceived-mimicry-and-camouflage">Nature History</a><br />
<a href="http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300125399">Yale</a><br />
<a href="http://www.bbcfocusmagazine.com/review/dazzled-and-deceived-mimicry-and-camouflage">BBC</a><br />
</div>Chia-Hsuan Weihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05264223055637416856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-45230932781471951442009-12-16T23:07:00.000+08:002009-12-16T23:45:00.529+08:00在貝氏擬態中,高豐度的model可能允許mimic性狀在演化過程中漸變<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHJGY_7KRDAtbaiN3DXgicNOmNEJ2zhPh8FIYaN2lTZ9ZyArCcIN5YdFvGXvCFCd5g2q9NS2KkgqhN41hgjDjG3cQ6gXUnbSToqftFQIH0FfNHirrfp1ymhz1_-5_JzJ1QpMFA-3G6edVk/s1600-h/CompareCoralSnake.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHJGY_7KRDAtbaiN3DXgicNOmNEJ2zhPh8FIYaN2lTZ9ZyArCcIN5YdFvGXvCFCd5g2q9NS2KkgqhN41hgjDjG3cQ6gXUnbSToqftFQIH0FfNHirrfp1ymhz1_-5_JzJ1QpMFA-3G6edVk/s320/CompareCoralSnake.jpg" /></a><br />
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</div><div style="text-align: justify;">文獻來源:Kikuchi DW & Pfennig DW. 2009. High-model abundance may permit the gradual evolution of Batesian mimicry: an experimental test. <i>Proc. R. Soc. B. </i>in press. <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2009/11/27/rspb.2009.2000.abstract">[page]</a><br />
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</div><div style="text-align: justify;">簡介<br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">貝氏擬態中mimic的演化被認為是追尋著model而變化其擬態斑紋組,然而在演變的過程中,斑紋的變化是突然間的劇烈變化,並且快速的達到性狀固定(phenotype fixed),或是逐漸變化淘汰不被環境所偏好的性狀,l這個問題在各派學說中並未達到共識。本篇研究以珊瑚蛇擬態群為例,透過捕食實驗與性狀在演化關係樹上的分佈,推測mimic性狀的演化方向。從捕食實驗的結果來看,接近擬態的mimic與不顯眼的斑紋在model豐度高的時候並不容易遭受攻擊,反之在model豐度低的時候則以上兩者皆遭受高度攻擊。性狀演化的結果則顯示,mimic的斑紋演化趨勢是從隱蔽的顏色到半擬態型,再到擬態型。這篇文章提供了mimic斑紋組的演化在model豐度高的條件下,可以經由逐漸的變化漸進參與擬態群。<br />
</div>Chia-Hsuan Weihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05264223055637416856noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2309359262722332268.post-77391676136900556442009-10-08T10:47:00.000+08:002009-10-08T10:54:08.287+08:00警戒性與貝氏擬態是否一定需要醒目顏色配合? 研究顯示歐洲蝮蛇的隱匿但具辯識性的斑紋可避免掠食者的攻擊<div style="text-align: justify;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Vipera_berus_%28Marek_Szczepanek%29.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px; height: 268px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9eiK9e6V9ypO3C7n7DYFePoATu5XZbPlxQSfo77YkVoOtZCTjz1bdm4tSk_1LA1SaDjskD-tShXFBqqGxJ_4-GXOGWPkLYzuxmt9r1msYBRCit4HByZ66PI303Sme0iuZbAQej-b1usIv/s400/Vipera_berus_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5390055949211124610" border="0" /></a><span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">文獻來源: WüSTER W, ALLUM CSE, BIRTA BJARGARDOTTIR I, BAILEY KL, DAWSON KJ, GUENIOUI J, LEWIS J, MCGURK J, MOORE AG, NISKANEN M, POLLARD CP. 2004. </span>Do aposematism and Batesian mimicry require bright colours? A test, using European viper markings</span><span style="font-size:85%;">. </span><span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><span style="font-style: italic;">Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Biological sciences </span><span style="font-weight: bold;">271</span>(1556): 2495-2499.</span> [<a href="http://www.ege.fcen.uba.ar/eyca/eyca2009/Seminarios/Seminario_8.pdf">全文下載</a>]<br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Abstract</span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" >Predator avoidance of noxious prey, aposematism and defensive mimicry are normally associated with bright, contrasting patterns and colours. However, noxious prey may be unable to evolve conspicuous coloration because of other selective constraints, such as the need to be inconspicuous to their own prey or to specialist predators. Many venomous snakes, particularly most vipers, display patterns that are apparently cryptic, but nevertheless highly characteristic, and appear to be mimicked by other, non-venomous snakes. However, predator avoidance of viper patterns has never been demonstrated experimentally. Here, the analysis of 813 avian attacks on 12 636 Plasticine snake models in the field shows that models bearing the characteristic zigzag band of the adder (Vipera berus) are attacked significantly less frequently than plain models. This suggests that predator avoidance of inconspicuously but characteristically patterned noxious prey is possible. Our findings emphasize the importance of mimicry in the ecological and morphological diversification of advanced snakes.</span><br /><br /><span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">圖片連結:</span> <a href="http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB:Vipera_berus_%28Marek_Szczepanek%29.jpg">wikipedia</a> (photo credit: Marek Szczepanek)</span><br /></div>版主http://www.blogger.com/profile/11679992499358698322noreply@blogger.com0